The
oldest instruments...
All
over the world, archeologists list simple idiophones
as the first prehistoric musical instruments. This
includes rattles, scrapers, and bone flutes (without
holes). The neolithic strata contains slit drums,
flutes (with holes), shell trumpets, and musical bows.
The paleolithic strata yields basket rattles, xylophones,
flutes, friction sticks. These early instruments,
at least the instruments which survived, often resemble
tools that early society utilized. In India, the doddu
rajan, found among the Savaras, resembles a fire producing
implement (a tool to create heat by friction). This
type of scraper, also found as the kokara among the
Palayans of Kerala perhaps became the Palayans' scraper,
and used in the music of exorcism.
Earthen
pots, used for cooking and storing grain, served as
percussion instruments. Examples are the noot, rouf
(Kashmir), matki (Rajastan), gugri, gagra (north India),
ghatam (south India). Since many of these instruments,
built out of perishable materials, did not leave evidence
for us to trace their history, we rely on sculptures,
paintings, and manuscripts which depict or describe
them.
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The
seals of the Mohenjodaro
The
seals of the Mohenjodaro Indus valley civilization
contain depictions of men playing long cylindrical
drums hung around their necks played horizontally.
These drums are most similar to the kharrang of Assam
and with the dhole of the Reddis of Andra Pradesh.
Other drums inscribed on the seals include an hour
glass shaped drum like the hudukka, castanets and
cymbals. Some arched harps found in their hieroglyphics
and unearthed clay whistles demonstrate they developed
a tonal system, but no literature exists which we
can translate in order to learn about that system.
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Vedic
literature
Our
first documentation of music occurs in the Vedic scriptures,
of the Aryan culture. The most ancient Vedic literature
describes drums covered with the skins of wild animals,
large earthen drums, and the role of the drums in
various rituals. The bhumi-dundubhi, a giant earth
drum, consisting of a hallow pit covered with skin,
struck by legs of wood, signaled danger or approaching
enemies with its thunderous and deep resonating pitch.
Vedic singers used the dundhubi, a drum formed out
of hallow tree trunks with the upper part covered
with skin.
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Literature
from the Nardiyasiksa and the Natyasastra.
A
great deal of our musical knowledge of India stems
from the Nardiyasiksa (written approximately around
100 B.C.E.) and Bharata's Natyasastra, a later work
during that period which offers a scientific approach
(also called: the Natyaveda, panchamaveda, gamdarvaveda,
or the "fifth" veda).
Naradiysiksa, describes vedic and ghandharva music.
It states that semi-divine ghandharva music is composed
of three elements: svara, tala, and pada. Narad describes
the essentials of vocal and instrumental music. In
the 31st and 32nd chapters, the Natyasastra gives
descriptions of tala, the fundamental aspects of India
rhythm. According to Bharata, tala was known as 'ghana'
and time as 'kala'. Laya, called kalapata, subdivided
into vilamvita (slow), madhya (medium), and druta
(fast). Kala divided into three parts, citra (two
matras), vartika (four mantras), and daksima (eight
mantras). Bharata stated that tala, or time unit,
was known as the measurement of kala, ('kala kala
pramanena tala ityabhdhiyate' 31.7). Two kinds of
talas existed, n'sabda (soundless or beatless), and
sa'sabda (with sound or beat). The soundless tala
again subdivided into 4 kinds: samya, tala, dhruva,
and sannipata. Other terminology regarding rhythm
included: yati (a method of applying a tempo of a
tala -- of which they had several kinds: sama, srotogata,
gopuccha, damaru, pipilika), prakarana (to make a
song ready for singing), satala (with any rhythm),
atala (without rhythm). With such terminology they
clearly developed a complicated rhythmic system. This
originated before the classical music age (600 to
500 B.C.E.), as ghandharva music became obsolete before
the Bharata period. Ghandharva music provides the
link between vedic music and post-vedic marga type
of music (which evolved around 700 B.C.E., and provides
insight to the classical period as well.
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During
the classical and post-classical period...
The
classical or post-classical period featured drums
with complex designs, like the puskara, bhanda, panava,
and mrdanga. The ancient dhundubhi became a prototype
for these drums, as well as, the bhanda vadya, the
modern pakhawaj and the khole. The puskara consisted
of three drums, two horizontal and one leaning drum.
They tuned these drums to defined pitches (gandhama,
sadja, and pancama -- the tones considered as the
primal ones of the gama or 'scales'). The bhanda vadya,
mrdanga, and the pakhawaj all have similar designs.
Played horizontally, these barrel shaped (almost cylindrical)
drums, feature a tuned multi-layered composite membranes
covering both ends (connected by leather straps).
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Other
drums found in India during this period...
Other
drums found in India during this period include the
madal which features a similar but less sophisticated
design. This drum is found among the Santals, Oraons,
Baigans, and Ghasias (all the non-Aryan people of
the central Indian belt). Similar drums existed throughout
India with variations on this name: maddale (Kannada),
madol (Bengalic), mandar (Hindi), mardal (Sanskrit),
maddelam (Tamil). Other double membrane drums from
this period include: the tavil (Tamil), the pung (Manipur),
and the khole (Bengal).
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Origins
of the tabla, and development to present day.
The
tabla developed as a hybridized drum, influenced by
all of these varieties, in particular, the mrdangm
and the puskara. Muktesvara temple (6th-7th century)
and Bhuranesvara (and three other cave temples) of
Badari in Bombay (6th century) contain depictions
of the Puskara. Musicians often placed the puskara's
smaller verticle drum (called 'alinga'), on their
lap and played more than one drum at a time. Given
the the design, technology, and musical structure
for drums common in this this period, we can piece
together numerious features of the tabla.
The name 'tabla', probably derived from the Arabic
word for a drum (generic), called the 'tabl'; and
possibly to some extent the Turkish word 'dawal'.
Another popular notion is that Amir Khursuro invented
the tabla by splitting the Pakawaj into two drums.
This is highly disputed. Abul Fazil, the court recorder
neither mentions nor describes the tabla, leaving
doubt that Amir Khursuro invented the tabla, contrary
to a previously popular notion. The Muslim invaders
undoubtedly influenced the culture and structure of
the tabla. However, the earliest depictions and literature
describing the tabla as we recognize it today come
from the 18th century.
Details available from this point on enable us to
chart the development to modern day. Over the last
two centuries the tabla begins to take the forefront
of percussion instruments in north Indian classical
music. We can trace the family lineage of the gharanas
from the 18th century onward. Over this time, the
tabla slowly changed, the dayan decreasing in size
while the bayan increased. During this time the instrument
slowly became the primary drum for both classical
and popular music of north India.
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